Chapter 11: The First World War (1914-1918)

Why The War Was Called The First World War?

• All Methods of Destruction: Fought on land, air, sea, and underwater using newly mobilized weapons like tanks, submarines (U-boats), gunfire, and bombardments.
• Global Spread: Began in Europe but quickly spread to the continents of Asia and Africa.
• Unprecedented Casualties: Caused the heaviest loss of human life known until that time, with deadly consequences felt worldwide.

Main Causes of the First World War

1. Intense Nationalism

• "Competitive Patriotism": Aggressive nationalism fueled intense rivalry among European nations.
• Germany's Ambition: Kaiser Wilhelm II proclaimed Germany would be the "leader of the world" and aggressively sought a vast empire.
• France's Revenge: France wanted to recover Alsace and Lorraine, lost to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71).
• Italy's Desire: Wanted Trentino and the Port of Trieste back from Austria-Hungary.
• Unsatisfied Nationalism: Balkan states (Serbia, Bulgaria), Poland, and peoples within Austria-Hungary passionately desired independence.

2. An Armament Race

• Intense nationalism turned Europe into an assembly of vast armed camps.
• Preparation for War: Every country armed itself heavily.
• Naval Rivalry: Germany built a powerful navy. Britain responded by building two battleships for every one Germany built.
• This cycle compelled all nations to increase armaments, inevitably leading towards a global conflict.

3. Division of Europe into Two Armed Camps

• The suspicions, rivalry, and deep enmity between these two massive camps made World War highly likely.

4. Imperialism (The Race for Colonies)

• Mad Struggle for Territories: European nations scrambled for colonies in Asia and Africa in the 19th century.
• Economic Motive: Colonies provided raw materials for industries and acted as guaranteed markets for finished goods.
• Major Colonizers: Great Britain established the most colonies, followed by France, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium.
• Moroccan Crisis: Germany challenged France's control over Morocco by sending the gunboat Panther, nearly sparking war in 1904.

5. No Effective International Organisation

• There was no global machinery to enforce laws or maintain peace among competing nations.
• Hague Conferences: Tsar Nicholas II of Russia called conferences in 1899 and 1907 to limit armaments, but they failed, largely due to Germany's strict opposition.

The World War Begins

• 28 July 1914: Austria declared war on Serbia.
• Russia mobilized to defend Serbia.
• 1-3 August 1914: Germany declared war on Russia and France.
• 4 August 1914: Great Britain declared war on Germany after the German army invaded neutral Belgium.
• Global Escalation: Turkey and Bulgaria joined Germany. Italy left the Triple Alliance to join the Allies against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Japan declared war on Germany to capture colonies in the Far East.

The Course of the War

The Western Front

• Germany initially advanced rapidly, reaching within 15 miles of Paris (Marne River), but was stopped by Anglo-French forces.
• Tanks: Britain used tanks for the first time as a major weapon to break trenches.
• Submarine Warfare & US Entry: Germany used U-Boats to sink British ships. They torpedoed the passenger liner Lusitania, killing many Americans.
• 6 April 1917: Shocked by the attacks, the USA declared war on Germany, providing massive resources (men and money) to the Allies.

The Eastern Front & Turkey

• Russia fought on two fronts against Germany and Austria-Hungary.
• Germany captured Romania (1916), gaining crucial petrol and grain.
• Turkey joined Germany (1914) but was defeated by the British in Syria and Palestine, eventually surrendering on 31 October 1918.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918)

• The 1917 Communist Revolution in Russia brought Lenin to power.
• Lenin signed a peace treaty with Germany, ending Russia's involvement in the war and giving up major territories.

The Treaty of Versailles (1919)

• Signed on 28 June 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, France.
• Framed mainly by the "Big Four": Lloyd George (Britain), Woodrow Wilson (USA), George Clemenceau (France), and V. Orlando (Italy).

Terms (Provisions) of the Treaty

• War Indemnity: Germany was declared guilty of aggression and forced to pay a massive $33 billion in reparations.
• The Rhine Valley: Demilitarized. Germany could not build fortifications on either bank. Allied troops occupied the west bank for 15 years.
• Alsace-Lorraine & Saar Basin: France regained Alsace-Lorraine and was given full ownership of the rich Saar coal mines for 15 years as compensation.
• Schleswig: Divided by plebiscite between Denmark (Northern zone) and Germany (Central zone).
• Eupen & Malmedy: Given to Belgium. The city of Memel went to Lithuania.
• Independence of Poland: Poland was recreated. To give Poland a port, the German city of Danzig was internationalized as a 'Free City' under the League of Nations.
• Loss of Colonies: Germany lost all overseas colonies. Togoland, Cameroon, and German East Africa were partitioned between Britain, France, and Belgium as Mandates. Palestine and Mesopotamia (Iraq) were given to Britain as Mandates.
• Military Crippled: German army restricted to 100,000 soldiers. Navy limited to 15,000 men and 36 ships. Air Force and submarines totally banned.
• Supply of Coal: Germany had to supply vast quantities of coal to France, Italy, and Belgium for 10 years.
• New Independent States: Complete independence of Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia was recognized.
• The League of Nations: The Covenant of the League of Nations was added to the Treaty.

Remaining Peace Treaties

• Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919): Signed with Austria, disarming them.
• Breakup of Austria-Hungary: Hungary was recognized as a completely separate state with its own treaty.
• Treaty of Sevres (1920): Turkey surrendered authority over all non-Turkish races.

Various Other Results of the War

• Death and Destruction: Terrible loss of life (nearly 9 million killed) and shattered European economies.
• National Self-Determination: New nations like Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland were created based on ethnic boundaries.
• Emergence of New Ideologies (Dictatorships): Failure of democracy led to dictatorial systems such as Fascism in Italy, Nazism in Germany, and Communism in Russia.
• USA as a World Power: Based on Wilson's 14 Points, the US emerged economically and militarily dominant, replacing England as the primary "Creditor of Europe."
• The League of Nations: Established in 1920 with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, following Wilson's proposal for a 'General Association of Nations'.

The League of Nations

Objectives

• Primary Aim: To promote international cooperation and achieve international peace and security.
• Prevent war by not resorting to armed conflict.
• Establish International Law as the actual rule of conduct among governments.
• Maintain the status quo established by the Peace Conference.
• Protect national minorities and deal with health, social, and economic problems.
• Ensure proper administration of "Mandate" territories.

Membership and Organs

• Began with 42 original members. Admission required a 2/3 vote.
• USA never joined because the American Senate (Upper House) refused to ratify the Covenant.
• Germany joined later in 1926.
• Principal Organs: The Assembly, the Council, the Secretariat, the Permanent Court of International Justice, and the International Labour Organisation (ILO).